Part II: The Calculus Revolution
1660–1800
The invention of calculus was the most consequential mathematical event in history. Newton and Leibniz, working independently, created the mathematical language that would describe all of classical physics — from planetary orbits to fluid flow to electromagnetic waves.
In the 18th century, Euler, Lagrange, and Hamilton transformed calculus into analytical mechanics — a framework so powerful that it remains the foundation of modern physics, from quantum field theory to general relativity.
Calculus: Newton vs. Leibniz
The parallel invention of calculus and the priority dispute that shaped modern mathematics.
Euler & Analytical Mechanics
The most prolific mathematician in history transforms physics into analysis.
Lagrange, Hamilton & Variational Principles
From least action to Hamiltonian mechanics — the framework quantum mechanics would inherit.